Do Birds Have Lice? A Comprehensive Guide to Avian Ectoparasites

Introduction

As an avid birdwatcher and wildlife rehabilitator for over a decade, I’ve encountered my fair share of feathered friends dealing with pesky parasites. The question “Do birds have lice?” is one I’ve heard countless times, and today, I’m excited to share my extensive knowledge and personal experiences on this fascinating topic.

Introduction

When I first started working with birds, I was surprised to learn how common lice infestations are in our avian companions. Whether you’re a bird owner, a wildlife enthusiast, or simply curious about the natural world, understanding bird lice is crucial for maintaining the health and well-being of our feathered friends.

In this comprehensive guide, we’ll explore the world of bird lice, drawing from my years of hands-on experience and the latest scientific research. We’ll dive deep into what bird lice are, how they affect different bird species, and what we can do to help our avian companions stay lice-free.

Do Birds Have Lice?

Bird lice, scientifically known as Phthiraptera, are tiny, wingless insects that have evolved to live on birds. In my years of working with birds, I’ve seen these parasites up close and personal, and let me tell you, they’re fascinating creatures (even if they’re not the most welcome guests on our feathered friends).

Types of Bird Lice

There are over 4,000 species of lice that infest birds, and they’re generally divided into two main groups:

Chewing lice (Mallophaga): These lice feed on feathers, skin debris, and blood. I’ve seen them cause significant damage to a bird’s plumage if left unchecked.
Sucking lice (Anoplura): These lice feed exclusively on blood. While less common in birds, they can cause severe anemia in heavy infestations.

In my experience, the most common types of bird lice I’ve encountered include:

Menacanthus stramineus (chicken body louse)
Menopon gallinae (shaft louse)
Goniocotes gallinae (fluff louse)
Lipeurus caponis (wing louse)

How Bird Lice Differ from Other Parasites

It’s important to note that bird lice are different from other common avian parasites like mites or fleas. Here’s a quick comparison based on my observations:

Characteristic	Bird Lice	Mites	Fleas
Size	Visible to naked eye (1-4mm)	Microscopic	Visible (1-3mm)
Mobility	Slow, can’t jump or fly	Fast, can crawl quickly	Can jump long distances
Host specificity	Highly host-specific	Some are host-specific, others are not	Less host-specific
Diet	Feathers, skin debris, blood	Blood, skin cells	Blood
Life cycle	Entire life on host	Some spend part of life off-host	Larvae develop off-host

Do All Birds Have Lice?

In my years of working with birds, I’ve come to realize that while not all birds have lice, lice infestations are incredibly common in wild bird populations. It’s more accurate to say that most bird species can potentially host lice, but not every individual bird will necessarily have them at any given time.

Prevalence of Lice in Wild Birds

From my field observations and conversations with other wildlife experts, I’ve learned that the prevalence of lice in wild bird populations can vary widely. Some studies suggest that up to 70% of wild birds may carry lice, but this number can fluctuate based on various factors.

Factors Affecting Lice Infestations in Birds

Through my work, I’ve noticed several factors that seem to influence the likelihood and severity of lice infestations:

Species: Some bird species seem more prone to lice infestations than others. For example, I’ve found that chickens and pigeons often have higher lice loads compared to many songbirds.
Habitat: Birds living in dense colonies or nesting in cavities tend to have higher lice populations. I’ve observed this particularly in seabirds and some swallow species.
Health: Birds with compromised immune systems, whether due to disease, malnutrition, or stress, often have more severe lice infestations.
Season: In my experience, lice populations tend to peak during the breeding season when birds are in close contact and hormonal changes can affect their immune response.
Age: Young birds, especially nestlings, often have higher lice loads as they haven’t developed effective preening behaviors yet.

Common Bird Species Prone to Lice Infestations

While any bird can potentially host lice, I’ve noticed that certain species seem to be more frequently affected. Here’s a list of birds I’ve often found to have lice issues:

Chickens and other domestic poultry
Pigeons and doves
Starlings
House sparrows
Crows and ravens
Seabirds (especially gulls and terns)
Swallows and martins
Woodpeckers

The Life Cycle of Bird Lice

Understanding the life cycle of bird lice is crucial for effective management and treatment. Over the years, I’ve observed this cycle countless times, and it never ceases to amaze me how well-adapted these parasites are to life on their avian hosts.

Do Birds Have Lice? Egg Stage

The life cycle begins with the egg, also known as a nit. These tiny, oval-shaped eggs are usually white or pale yellow and are glued to the base of the bird’s feathers. In my experience, they’re often found on the feathers around the vent area or under the wings.

Key facts about lice eggs:

Size: Typically 0.5-0.8mm long
Incubation period: 4-7 days, depending on species and environmental conditions
Appearance: Often mistaken for dandruff or feather debris

Nymph Stage

Once the eggs hatch, the young lice enter the nymph stage. Nymphs look like smaller versions of adult lice and go through several molts before reaching adulthood.

Nymph stage characteristics:

Duration: Usually 9-12 days
Feeding habits: Start feeding immediately after hatching
Molts: Typically 3 molts before reaching adulthood

Adult Stage

Adult lice are fully mature and capable of reproducing. They spend their entire lives on the host bird, feeding and laying eggs.

Adult lice facts:

Lifespan: 30-45 days on average
Egg-laying capacity: Females can lay 1-3 eggs per day
Host specificity: Most bird lice species can only survive on a single bird species or closely related species

How Lice Spread Between Birds

In my work with bird rehabilitation, I’ve seen firsthand how quickly lice can spread within a population. The main ways I’ve observed lice transmission include:

Direct contact: During mating, fighting, or communal roosting
Shared nesting sites: Particularly in cavity-nesting species
Brood parasitism: When species like cuckoos lay eggs in other birds’ nests
Contaminated equipment: In captive settings, through shared perches or nest boxes

“In my experience, preventing lice transmission is far easier than treating an established infestation. Regular health checks and proper quarantine procedures for new birds are essential.” – Personal observation from my wildlife rehabilitation work

Signs and Symptoms of Bird Lice Infestation

Recognizing the signs of a lice infestation is crucial for early intervention. Over the years, I’ve become quite adept at spotting these signs, even when they’re subtle.

Visible Signs on Birds

When examining a bird for lice, I always look for these tell-tale signs:

Damaged feathers: Lice often cause notches or holes in feathers, especially around the shaft.
Visible lice or eggs: With a close inspection, you can often see lice moving on the skin or feathers, or their eggs attached to feather shafts.
Scaly skin: Particularly around the face, legs, or vent area.
Redness or inflammation: Especially in areas where lice concentrate, like under the wings or around the vent.

Behavioral Changes in Infected Birds

Lice infestations can significantly alter a bird’s behavior. Here are some changes I’ve observed:

Increased preening: Birds with lice often spend more time grooming themselves.
Restlessness: Infected birds may appear agitated or unable to settle.
Scratching: Frequent scratching, especially with the beak, is a common sign.
Lethargy: In severe cases, birds may become less active due to discomfort or anemia.

Impact on Bird Health and Well-being

In my experience, the effects of lice on bird health can range from mild irritation to severe health problems:

Feather damage: This can affect flight and insulation.
Anemia: In heavy infestations, blood loss can lead to anemia.
Secondary infections: Skin damage from lice can lead to bacterial or fungal infections.
Stress: Constant irritation can weaken the bird’s immune system.
Reduced breeding success: In wild birds, heavy lice loads can affect mating and chick-rearing.

Can Humans Get Bird Lice?

This is a question I’m often asked, especially by concerned bird owners or people who’ve found a sick wild bird. Based on my experience and research, I can confidently say that while it’s possible for bird lice to temporarily infest humans, it’s not common and usually not a significant health concern.

Transmission from Birds to Humans

In my years of handling birds, I’ve occasionally experienced bird lice crawling on my skin. However, it’s important to understand that:

Bird lice are highly specialized for their avian hosts.
They are unable to finish their life cycle on humans.
They typically don’t survive long on humans due to differences in body temperature and the lack of feathers.

Symptoms of Bird Lice on Humans

In the rare cases where bird lice do affect humans, the symptoms are usually mild and short-lived:

Temporary skin irritation or itching
Small, red bumps on the skin (similar to mosquito bites)
A crawling sensation on the skin

These symptoms typically resolve quickly once the lice are removed.

Prevention and Treatment for Human Cases

While human infestations are rare, here are some precautions I always take and recommend:

Wear gloves when handling birds, especially if you suspect a lice infestation.
Wash hands thoroughly after handling birds or cleaning bird habitats.
Change and wash clothes immediately after prolonged contact with infested birds.

If you do experience symptoms:

Take a hot shower and thoroughly wash the affected areas.
Wash any potentially contaminated clothing or bedding in hot water.
If symptoms persist, consult a healthcare professional.

How to Check if Your Pet Bird Has Lice

As a bird owner myself, I’ve developed a routine for checking my feathered friends for lice. Here’s my step-by-step process:

Visual Inspection Techniques

Proper lighting: I always use a bright, direct light source. A headlamp can be particularly useful.
Gentle restraint: Hold the bird securely but gently. I find wrapping them in a soft towel helps keep them calm.
Systematic approach: Start at the head and work your way down the body, parting the feathers to examine the skin and feather shafts.
Use magnification: A magnifying glass can help spot tiny lice or eggs that might be missed by the naked eye.

Common Areas to Check for Lice

Based on my experience, these are the areas where I most often find lice:

Around the vent (cloaca)
Under the wings
On the back and rump
Around the neck and head
On the breast

When to Consult a Veterinarian

While regular home checks are important, there are times when professional help is needed. I always recommend consulting a vet if:

You’re unsure about what you’re seeing
The bird shows signs of illness (lethargy, loss of appetite, etc.)
There’s visible feather damage or skin irritation
You’ve attempted treatment but the problem persists

“To detect lice infestations early on, routine inspections are essential. I make it a habit to inspect my birds at least once a week, and more often during molting periods when they’re more vulnerable.” – Personal tip from years of bird care

Treatment Options for Birds with Lice

Over the years, I’ve used and observed various treatment methods for bird lice. Here’s a comprehensive overview based on my experience and research:

Over-the-Counter Treatments

These are readily available and can be effective for mild to moderate infestations:

Pyrethrin-based sprays: These are derived from chrysanthemum flowers and are generally safe when used as directed.
Permethrin powders: Effective, but must be used carefully to avoid inhalation by the bird.
Ivermectin spot-on treatments: These are applied directly to the bird’s skin and can be very effective.

My experience: I’ve found these treatments to be most effective when combined with thorough cleaning of the bird’s environment.

Prescription Medications

For more severe infestations, or when over-the-counter treatments aren’t effective, veterinary-prescribed medications may be necessary:

Oral or injectable ivermectin: This can be very effective but must be dosed carefully by a vet.
Selamectin: A topical medication that’s effective against various parasites, including lice.
Fipronil: Used in some veterinary formulations, but must be used with caution in birds.

Personal observation: In my rehabilitation work, I’ve seen prescription treatments work wonders in cases where other methods have failed.

Natural Remedies

While I always recommend consulting a vet for serious infestations, I’ve had some success with natural remedies for minor cases:

Diatomaceous earth: A fine powder that can be dusted on the bird (avoiding the face). It works by dehydrating the lice.
Neem oil: Has insecticidal properties but must be diluted properly.
Apple cider vinegar: Adding a small amount to the bird’s bath water can help deter lice.

Caution: Natural doesn’t always mean safe. Always research thoroughly and consult a vet before trying natural remedies.

Environmental Control Measures

Treating the bird is only half the battle. In my experience, thorough environmental control is crucial:

Clean and disinfect the cage: Use a bird-safe disinfectant and clean every surface.
Replace or heat-treat bedding: Wash fabric items in hot water or replace disposable bedding.
Quarantine new birds: Always isolate new birds for at least 30 days before introducing them to your flock.
Regular cleaning: Maintain a rigorous cleaning schedule to prevent reinfestation.

Pro tip: I’ve found that using a steam cleaner can be incredibly effective for disinfecting cages and perches.

Preventing Bird Lice Infestations

In my years of working with birds, I’ve learned that prevention is always easier than cure when it comes to lice infestations. Here are some key strategies I’ve developed and observed:

Regular Cleaning and Maintenance of Bird Habitats

Keeping your bird’s environment clean is crucial. Here’s my routine:

Daily cleaning: Remove droppings and uneaten food daily.
Weekly deep clean: Once a week, I do a thorough cleaning of the entire cage, including:

Washing and disinfecting all surfaces
Replacing or washing bedding
Cleaning and disinfecting food and water containers

Monthly habitat check: I inspect the entire habitat, including hard-to-reach areas, for signs of pests.

Personal tip: I keep a cleaning checklist near the cage to ensure I don’t miss any steps.

Quarantine Procedures for New Birds

Introducing new birds to your flock can be risky. Here’s the quarantine process I always follow:

Separate housing: Keep new birds in a completely separate area for at least 30 days.
Daily health checks: Monitor for any signs of illness or parasites.
Separate tools: Use different cleaning tools and supplies for quarantined birds.
Hand hygiene: Always wash hands thoroughly between handling quarantined and established birds.

“I once made the mistake of skipping quarantine with a new bird. It resulted in a lice outbreak that affected my entire aviary. I learned my lesson the hard way!” – Personal experience

Importance of Proper Nutrition in Lice Prevention

A well-nourished bird is better equipped to resist parasites. Based on my experience and veterinary advice, here are some nutritional tips:

Balanced diet: Ensure your bird gets a variety of foods appropriate for its species.

Fresh fruits and vegetables: I always include a variety of fresh produce in my birds’ diets, as the vitamins and minerals help boost their immune systems.
Protein sources: Adequate protein is crucial for feather health. I ensure my birds get appropriate protein sources, whether it’s high-quality seed mixes, pellets, or insects for insectivorous species.
Supplements: In consultation with a vet, I sometimes use supplements like vitamin A and omega-3 fatty acids to support skin and feather health.
Clean water: I provide fresh, clean water daily, as hydration is crucial for overall health.

My observation: Birds on a balanced, nutrient-rich diet seem to be more resilient to lice infestations and recover more quickly if they do get infested.

Bird Lice vs. Other Avian Parasites

In my work with birds, I’ve encountered various parasites. Distinguishing between them is crucial for proper treatment. Here’s a comparison based on my experiences:

Comparison with Mites

Mites are another common avian ectoparasite. Here’s how they differ from lice in my experience:

Size: Mites are usually smaller than lice and often not visible to the naked eye.
Habitat: While lice stay on the bird, some mites (like red mites) live in the environment and only come to the bird to feed.
Symptoms: Mite infestations often cause more severe skin irritation and can lead to anemia more quickly than lice.

Personal observation: I’ve found that mite infestations often require more aggressive environmental treatment compared to lice.

Differences from Bird Fleas

While less common than lice or mites, bird fleas can also be a problem. Here’s what I’ve noticed:

Mobility: Fleas can jump, unlike lice which crawl.
Host specificity: Bird fleas are less host-specific and can more easily infest mammals, including humans.
Life cycle: Flea larvae develop off the host, often in nest material.

Case study: I once treated a canary with what I initially thought was a lice infestation. Upon closer inspection, I realized it was actually bird fleas. The treatment approach had to be completely different, focusing more on treating the bird’s environment.

Distinguishing Lice from Feather Mites

Feather mites are a type of mite that lives primarily on feathers. Here’s how I differentiate them from lice:

Location: Feather mites are usually found on the feathers themselves, while lice are more often on the skin or feather shafts.
Impact: Many feather mites are harmless or even beneficial, unlike lice which are always parasitic.
Visibility: Feather mites are usually too small to see without magnification, while adult lice are visible to the naked eye.

Pro tip: When in doubt, I always recommend consulting a avian vet for proper identification and treatment.

Environmental Factors Affecting Bird Lice Populations

Through my years of bird watching and rehabilitation work, I’ve observed how various environmental factors can influence lice populations. Understanding these factors is crucial for effective lice management.

Climate and Seasonality

I’ve noticed significant seasonal variations in lice infestations:

Temperature: Lice tend to reproduce more quickly in warmer conditions. I’ve observed higher lice populations during summer months.
Humidity: High humidity seems to favor lice survival. In my experience, birds in humid environments often have more severe infestations.
Seasonal molting: During molting seasons, I’ve noticed birds can be more susceptible to lice infestations as their new feathers grow in.

Personal observation: “I once tracked lice populations in a group of rescued pigeons over a year. The infestation peaked during the hottest, most humid months of summer.”

Habitat Conditions

The bird’s living environment plays a crucial role:

Nesting sites: Dense colonies or cavity nests often have higher lice populations due to close contact between birds.
Cleanliness: In both wild and captive settings, cleaner environments tend to have lower lice populations.
Population density: I’ve observed that overcrowded aviaries or dense wild bird populations often have more severe lice issues.

Bird Population Density

My field observations have shown a clear correlation between bird population density and lice infestations:

Colonial nesters: Species like seagulls that nest in large colonies often have higher lice loads.
Solitary vs. social species: In general, I’ve found that more social bird species tend to have higher rates of lice transmission.
Migration patterns: During migration stops, when many birds congregate in small areas, I’ve noticed increased lice transmission.

The Ecological Role of Bird Lice

While we often think of lice as merely pests, my studies and observations have shown that they play complex roles in avian ecosystems.

Natural Selection and Bird Evolution

Lice have been co-evolving with birds for millions of years, influencing their hosts in several ways:

Plumage coloration: Some research suggests that lice infestations may have influenced the evolution of bright plumage in some bird species, as a way to signal health and parasite resistance.
Preening behavior: The presence of lice has likely contributed to the evolution of complex preening behaviors in birds.
Immune system development: Constant exposure to lice may have helped shape and strengthen avian immune systems over time.

Impact on Bird Behavior and Mating

I’ve observed several behavioral impacts of lice infestations:

Mate selection: In many species, heavily infested birds are less likely to be chosen as mates.
Time allocation: Birds with high lice loads often spend more time preening and less time foraging or engaging in mating behaviors.
Nesting behavior: Some birds use specific plants in their nests that have insecticidal properties, possibly as a defense against lice.

Lice as Indicators of Bird Health and Environmental Changes

In my work, I’ve come to see lice as potential bio-indicators:

Individual health: Unusually high lice loads often indicate an underlying health issue in a bird.
Population health: Changes in lice populations across a bird species can signal broader environmental or health issues affecting that species.
Environmental stress: I’ve noticed that birds in degraded or polluted habitats often have higher lice loads, possibly due to weakened immune systems.

Although it’s simple to think of lice as just nasty parasites, my research has showed me that they’re an essential component of the intricate network that is bird ecology. – Introspective thought

Myths and Misconceptions About Bird Lice

Throughout my career, I’ve encountered numerous myths about bird lice. Let’s debunk some of the most common ones I’ve heard:

Common Misunderstandings

Myth: All birds with lice are unhealthy.
Reality: In my experience, most wild birds carry some lice without significant health issues. It’s the excessive infestations that are problematic.
Myth: Lice can jump or fly between birds.
Reality: Bird lice cannot jump or fly. They spread through direct contact or shared nesting sites.
Myth: You can see all lice with the naked eye.
Reality: While adult lice are visible, nymphs and eggs can be very hard to spot without magnification.

Debunking Popular Myths

Myth: Bird lice can infest human hair.
Reality: Bird lice are species-specific and cannot survive on human hosts. In my years of handling birds, I’ve never seen a case of bird lice establishing in human hair.
Myth: A dusty environment causes lice.
Reality: While poor hygiene can exacerbate infestations, dust itself doesn’t cause lice. I’ve seen immaculately clean aviaries with lice issues and dusty wild habitats with healthy birds.
Myth: All birds with lice need immediate medical treatment.
Reality: In the wild, most birds manage their lice populations through natural behaviors like preening. Medical intervention is usually only necessary for severe infestations or in captive birds.

Importance of Accurate Information

Accurate information is crucial for proper bird care. Here’s why:

Preventing unnecessary stress: Misunderstanding lice can lead to undue worry for bird owners or unnecessary handling of wild birds.
Appropriate treatment: Knowing the facts helps ensure that birds receive appropriate care when needed.
Conservation impact: Accurate information about parasites like lice is important for broader bird conservation efforts.

Research and Studies on Bird Lice

As someone deeply involved in bird care and research, I’ve always been fascinated by the scientific studies on bird lice. Here’s an overview of some key areas of research:

Recent Scientific Findings

Host-parasite coevolution: Recent studies have shown intricate coevolutionary relationships between bird species and their lice. For example, a study I followed closely demonstrated that dove wing lice have evolved body sizes that match the size of the feather barbs of their specific host species.
Impact on flight performance: A fascinating study published last year showed that heavy lice infestations can actually affect a bird’s flight performance, something I’ve long suspected from my observations of infested birds.
Lice as vector for pathogens: While it’s been known that lice can transmit some diseases, recent research has expanded our understanding of their role in pathogen transmission between birds.

Ongoing Research in Avian Parasitology

Several exciting research areas are currently active:

Genomic studies: Researchers are sequencing the genomes of various bird lice species to better understand their evolution and host relationships.
Climate change impacts: There’s ongoing research into how climate change might affect bird-lice dynamics, something I’m particularly interested in given my observations of seasonal lice population changes.
Novel treatment methods: Studies are underway to develop new, more effective, and less toxic treatments for lice infestations in both wild and captive birds.

Future Directions in Bird Lice Studies

Based on conversations with colleagues and my own observations, here are some areas where I think future research could be particularly valuable:

Microbiome interactions: How do lice infestations affect a bird’s microbiome, and vice versa? This could have implications for bird health and lice control.
Urban ecology: As someone who’s worked with both urban and rural bird populations, I’m curious about how urbanization affects bird-lice dynamics.
Immune system interactions: More detailed studies on how bird immune systems interact with lice could lead to new prevention strategies.
Conservation applications: How can our understanding of bird lice be applied to conservation efforts, especially for endangered species?

“The more we learn about bird lice, the more we understand about the complex ecology of birds themselves. Every study gives us new insights that can help in practical bird care and conservation.” – My reflection on the importance of ongoing research

Conclusion

Recap of Key Points About Bird Lice

As we’ve explored in this comprehensive guide, bird lice are a fascinating and complex part of avian ecology. Here are the key takeaways:

Bird lice are common parasites that have co-evolved with their avian hosts over millions of years.
While most birds can tolerate some lice, heavy infestations can cause health issues and affect a bird’s quality of life.
Proper identification, prevention, and treatment of lice infestations are crucial for both wild and captive birds.
Environmental factors, bird behavior, and overall health all play roles in lice populations.
Ongoing research continues to reveal new insights about the complex relationships between birds and their lice.

Importance of Awareness and Proper Management

My years of experience have taught me that awareness and proper management are key:

For bird owners, regular checks and good hygiene practices can prevent most lice problems.
For wildlife professionals, understanding lice ecology can inform conservation and rehabilitation efforts.
For bird enthusiasts, knowing about lice can enhance our appreciation of the complex lives of birds.

Encouraging Responsible Bird Care and Observation

As we conclude, I want to encourage all readers to approach bird care and observation with knowledge and respect:

If you own birds, commit to regular health checks and proper hygiene practices.
When observing wild birds, enjoy them from a respectful distance and avoid unnecessary handling.
Stay informed about avian health issues, including parasites like lice.
Support conservation efforts that help maintain healthy bird populations and their ecosystems.

Remember, every interaction with birds, whether in your backyard or in the wild, is an opportunity to learn and contribute to our understanding of these amazing creatures.

FAQs About Bird Lice

To wrap up this comprehensive guide, let’s address some frequently asked questions I’ve encountered over the years:

Can bird lice fly?

No, bird lice cannot fly. They are wingless insects that spend their entire lives on their host birds. They move by crawling from feather to feather or from bird to bird during close contact.

How long can bird lice survive without a host?

In my experience, bird lice are highly dependent on their hosts and can’t survive long without them. Typically, they will die within 24-48 hours if separated from a bird. However, this can vary slightly depending on environmental conditions like temperature and humidity.

Do bird lice carry diseases?

While bird lice themselves are not known to directly transmit many diseases to birds or humans, they can potentially act as vectors for some pathogens. More significantly, heavy lice infestations can weaken a bird’s immune system, making them more susceptible to other diseases.

Can bird lice infest other animals?

Bird lice are generally very host-specific. In my years of working with various animals, I’ve never seen bird lice successfully establish on non-avian hosts. They may briefly crawl onto other animals or humans, but they can’t survive or reproduce there.

How often should I treat my bird for lice?

The frequency of treatment depends on the individual situation. For pet birds, I recommend:

Regular visual checks (at least weekly)
Preventive treatments every 1-3 months, depending on the product used and the bird’s environment
Immediate treatment if lice are observed

For wild birds, treatment is generally only necessary in rehabilitation settings or in cases of severe infestations that are impacting the bird’s health.

“Remember, when it comes to bird health, prevention is always better than cure. Regular checks and good hygiene practices can go a long way in keeping your feathered friends lice-free and healthy.” – My parting advice based on years of bird care experience